Property Manager Marketing: A 9-Move Playbook for 2026
- Pierce Hansum
- Aug 14
- 17 min read
Effective property manager marketing runs on nine high-impact moves: (1) website and on-page SEO, (2) Google Business Profile optimization, (3) social media and short-form video, (4) paid advertising targeted to owner prospects, (5) high-quality visuals and 3D tours, (6) email marketing and CRM drip sequences, (7) referral programs and tenant retention, (8) neighborhood content and local guides, and (9) measurement and iteration. Each move serves a distinct purpose, and the fastest starting point today is claiming your Google Business Profile or building a dedicated owner-lead landing page with a free rental analysis offer.
Who each move primarily serves:
Website and SEO: both owners and tenants
Google Business Profile: both (local trust signal)
Social media and video: tenants primarily, owners secondarily
Paid advertising: owners primarily
Visuals and 3D tours: tenants (conversion) and owners (perceived professionalism)
Email and CRM: owners primarily, tenants for retention
Referrals and retention: tenants primarily, owners through word-of-mouth
Neighborhood content: both, at different funnel stages
Measurement and iteration: internal (drives all of the above)
Key Takeaways
Effective property manager marketing requires a two-audience system, owned channel investment, and a dedicated owner acquisition funnel built before any broad advertising spend begins.
Point | Details |
Build owned assets first | Website, email list, and GBP compound over time; paid ads stop the moment the budget does. |
Email delivers the highest ROI | Aggregated real estate examples show $36–$42 returned per $1 spent on email marketing. |
Owner ads need a minimum budget | Google Ads for owner leads requires $1,000–$1,500/month to gather meaningful data; CPCs run $50–$150. |
Track UAC, not just CPL | Cost per acquired door (signed management agreement) is the metric that justifies continued ad spend. |
Blistr speeds listing readiness | AI-generated collateral delivered in 18–48 hours reduces vacancy windows and keeps ad creative consistent. |
Table of Contents
Why property manager marketing requires a two-audience system
How to make your website a 24/7 lead generator for owners and renters
How to claim Google Business Profile and use reviews strategically
How to build an email list and use drip sequences to convert owners and retain tenants
How referral programs and tenant experience drive retention-based profitability
How neighborhood content pages pull in owner and tenant searches
Which tools should property managers use for marketing and operations?
What does a 90-day property management marketing plan look like?
How to measure results: KPIs, reporting cadence, and five A/B tests
How AI-generated marketing collateral speeds listings: Blistr in practice
Legal and compliance considerations in property management marketing
How to integrate offline marketing into a digital-first strategy
The single highest-leverage move most property managers skip
Why property manager marketing requires a two-audience system
Most property management businesses have two distinct commercial goals: fill vacancies and win new owner accounts. These goals require entirely different messages, channels, and funnels. A tenant searching for a two-bedroom in Austin wants photos, pricing, and a fast application. An owner evaluating property management companies wants proof of performance, transparent fees, and a clear answer to “what will you do with my asset?”
Conflating these two audiences is the most common reason PM marketing budgets underperform. A generic homepage with no owner-specific landing page, or a social feed that only posts available units, serves neither audience well.
Owned channels such as email and a well-optimized website deliver the highest long-term ROI because they compound. A blog post ranking for “property management fees in Denver” generates owner leads for years. A paid ad stops the moment the budget does. The practical implication: build owned assets first, earn organic channels second, then use paid advertising to amplify what is already working.
The compounding advantage of owned channels:
Email marketing generates an estimated $36–$42 per $1 spent in aggregated real estate examples, making it the highest-ROI channel in the stack.
A complete funnel approach that maps awareness through retention clarifies which channels to activate at each stage and which KPIs to track.
Paid search delivers the fastest traffic but the highest ongoing cost; SEO compounds over months; referrals and retention drive the highest lifetime value per door.
How to make your website a 24/7 lead generator for owners and renters
A property management website that converts has two distinct jobs: capture owner leads and convert tenant inquiries. Most sites do neither well because they try to do both on the same page with the same message.
Immediate fixes checklist:
Create a dedicated owner landing page with a single offer (free rental analysis or free property assessment) and no site navigation to distract from the form.
Add a tenant search experience with filtering by bedroom count, neighborhood, and price range.
Optimize for mobile: over 60% of local searches happen on mobile devices, and a slow or unresponsive site loses leads before they read a single line.
Place conversion-focused CTAs above the fold on every key page.
On-page SEO checklist:
Write unique title tags for every page using owner-intent phrases (“property management company in [city]”) and tenant-intent phrases (“apartments for rent in [neighborhood]”).
Add local schema markup (LocalBusiness, RealEstateListing) to help Google understand your service area.
Build service-area pages for each neighborhood or city you manage in, each with unique content.
Create structured FAQ sections using question-and-answer schema to capture featured snippets.
Target page speed scores above 85 on Google PageSpeed Insights; compress images and defer non-critical scripts.
Cost and timeline estimates: A basic SEO audit and on-page fix costs $500–$2,000 with a freelancer or agency. A full site rebuild with conversion architecture runs $5,000–$15,000. Expect 3–6 months before organic traffic improvements become measurable, with meaningful lead volume typically appearing at the 6-month mark.
KPIs to track: organic sessions by landing page, owner-lead form submissions per month, organic conversion rate (forms/sessions), and keyword rankings for owner-intent terms like “property management [city].”
How to claim Google Business Profile and use reviews strategically
Google Business Profile is the digital storefront for property managers. Owners and tenants searching locally will see your GBP listing before they visit your website. A fully optimized profile with consistent reviews can place you in the local pack, which captures a disproportionate share of local search clicks.
Step-by-step GBP setup:
Go to business.google.com and claim or create your listing.
Verify ownership via postcard, phone, or video verification.
Select “Property Management Company” as your primary category; add secondary categories such as “Real Estate Agency” if applicable.
Add all service attributes: residential management, commercial management, tenant screening, maintenance coordination.
Upload at least 10 photos: office exterior, team, managed properties, and before/after maintenance work.
Set accurate business hours and add a booking link or phone number.
Write a 750-character business description that includes your city, service types, and a differentiator.
Review request script (email/SMS):
Send this within 48 hours of a positive interaction: a successful lease signing, a resolved maintenance issue, or a lease renewal. Never incentivize reviews; Google’s policies prohibit it and the risk of suspension is real.
Timeline expectations: GBP improvements show up in local pack rankings within 4–8 weeks of consistent optimization and review accumulation. Track weekly: profile views, website clicks from GBP, call volume, and direction requests.
What a 30/60/90-day social media content cadence looks like
Platform selection matters more than posting frequency. A property manager who posts consistently on two platforms outperforms one who posts sporadically across five. Instagram Reels and Facebook are the highest-priority platforms for most residential PM businesses. YouTube builds long-term discoverability for owner-facing content. LinkedIn is worth adding only when owner acquisition is a primary growth goal.
30-day sprint (foundation):
Post 3x per week on Instagram: one property walk-through Reel, one market update graphic, one tenant community post.
Post 2x per week on Facebook: share the Instagram content plus one local neighborhood event or business spotlight.
Goal: establish posting rhythm and identify which content type gets the most saves and shares.
60-day sprint (expand):
Add one YouTube video per month: a 3–5 minute owner FAQ (“What does a property manager actually do?”).
Introduce owner-facing Reels: “What to look for in a property management contract” or “How we handle maintenance requests.”
Begin repurposing: take each walk-through video and cut it into a Reel, a YouTube Short, an Instagram carousel, and an email clip.
90-day sprint (optimize):
Review analytics: which posts drove profile visits or DMs? Double down on that format.
Test one paid boost per week on the top-performing organic post to extend reach to owner-intent audiences.
Add LinkedIn posts if owner outreach is a priority: share market data, case studies, and management tips.
Pro Tip: Use Canva or CapCut templates to produce consistent-looking graphics and Reels in under 30 minutes per post. A library of 10 branded templates doubles content output without additional shooting time.
How to run paid ads that target owners, not tenants
Most PM ad failures trace back to one mistake: targeting tenant-intent keywords and sending that traffic to a generic homepage. Exact keyword-to-landing-page matching and a tight negative keyword list are the two highest-leverage fixes in any PM paid campaign.
Owner-intent keywords (target these): “property management company [city],” “hire property manager [city],” “property management fees [city],” “rental property management services.”
Tenant-intent keywords (exclude these as negatives): “apartments for rent,” “houses for rent,” “rental listings,” “find a rental,” “cheap apartments.”
Sample budget allocation:
Google Search (owner campaigns): 50–60% of paid budget
Meta Ads (owner retargeting and awareness): 20–30%
Tools and tracking (call tracking, UTMs, CRM integration): 10–15%
Google Ads for property management requires a minimum of $1,000–$1,500 per month to gather statistically meaningful data. Owner-lead CPCs typically run in a moderate to high range in competitive markets. At those rates, a $1,500 monthly budget produces roughly 10–30 clicks, which means conversion rate on the landing page is critical.
Ad launch checklist:
Build a dedicated owner landing page (no navigation, single CTA, free rental analysis offer).
Install Google Tag Manager and set up conversion tracking for form submissions and phone calls.
Add UTM parameters to every ad URL.
Set up a retargeting audience for visitors who viewed the owner page but did not convert.
Review the search terms report weekly and add irrelevant queries to the negative keyword list.
Track cost per acquired door (UAC), not just cost per lead. A focused channel mix that tracks to signed management agreements produces per-door economics that justify continued ad spend; CPL alone does not.
Why 3D tours and professional visuals reduce vacancy time
Immersive visual assets do two distinct jobs. For tenants, a Matterport-style 3D tour reduces the number of in-person showings needed before a decision, which compresses the leasing timeline. For owners evaluating management companies, professional photography and accurate floor plans signal that their asset will be presented with care.
What each visual type solves:
Professional photography: establishes first impression in listing feeds and ads; increases click-through rates on rental portals.
3D virtual tours (Matterport and similar tools): allow remote tenants to self-qualify before scheduling a showing, reducing no-shows.
2D and 3D floor plans: help tenants understand layout and furniture fit; reduce post-move-in complaints about room dimensions.
Video walk-throughs: repurpose across social, email, and ads; build owner confidence in your marketing quality.
Cost and timeline estimates: Professional photography for a standard unit runs $150–$400. A Matterport 3D scan costs $200–$500 per property depending on size. AI-generated floor plans and marketing collateral, such as those produced by Blistr, can be delivered within 18–48 hours and reduce the per-property production cost significantly compared with traditional post-production workflows.
How to deploy visuals across channels:
Lead with the 3D tour link in listing descriptions on Zillow, Apartments.com, and your own site.
Use the best three photos as the hero images in Google and Meta ads.
Cut a 60-second walk-through clip for Instagram Reels and email campaigns.
Embed the floor plan on the property detail page to reduce tenant inquiry calls about room sizes.
How to build an email list and use drip sequences to convert owners and retain tenants
Email is the highest-compounding channel in a property manager’s stack. Unlike social media, the list is owned. Unlike paid ads, the cost does not scale with volume. Aggregated real estate examples show email ROI in the $36–$42 per $1 spent range, which makes it the most efficient channel for long-term client value.
Owner prospect drip sequence (5 emails over 14 days):
Welcome email: introduce the company, link to the free rental analysis offer.
Value email: share a local market rent report or vacancy rate data for their neighborhood.
Social proof email: share a case study or review from a current owner client.
Objection email: address the top two owner objections (“How much do you charge?” and “What if I already have a tenant?”).
Conversion email: direct CTA to book a call or claim the free rental analysis.
Tenant retention sequence:
Move-in email: welcome, maintenance request instructions, and local neighborhood guide.
30-day check-in: ask if everything is working; link to the maintenance portal.
Renewal reminder (90 days before lease end): highlight the benefits of staying and any renewal incentive.
Mailchimp handles basic segmentation and automation at a low entry cost, making it a practical starting point for most PM businesses. The key integration priority is syncing your property management platform (such as Buildium) with your email tool so that tenant and owner records stay current without manual exports.
How referral programs and tenant experience drive retention-based profitability
Tenant churn is one of the most expensive line items in property management. A unit that turns over costs the owner one to two months of lost rent plus leasing fees. A referral program and a deliberate tenant experience strategy address both problems simultaneously.
Referral program template:
Tenant referral: offer a $200–$300 rent credit when a referred tenant signs a 12-month lease and pays the first month’s rent. Cap at two referrals per tenant per year to prevent gaming.
Owner referral: offer one month of reduced management fee (or a flat $300 gift card) when a referred owner signs a management agreement and the first tenant is placed.
Rules to prevent abuse: referral must be a new contact not already in your CRM; credit applies only after the referred party completes 60 days.
Tenant experience ideas that increase renewals:
Welcome kit at move-in: local restaurant gift card, neighborhood guide, and a handwritten note.
Local partner discounts: negotiate 10–15% discounts with local gyms, dry cleaners, or moving companies and share them in the move-in email.
Annual community event: a rooftop gathering or building barbecue costs $500–$1,000 and generates social content and renewal goodwill simultaneously.
A 5-percentage-point improvement in renewal rate on a 100-door portfolio eliminates five vacancy cycles per year.
How neighborhood content pages pull in owner and tenant searches
Neighborhood-specific content consistently ranks higher and pulls more qualified local leads than generic service pages. A page titled “Property Management in Capitol Hill, Seattle” with real rent data, vacancy rates, and local amenity information serves both an owner evaluating your market knowledge and a tenant researching the neighborhood.
Neighborhood guide page template:
H1: “Property Management in [Neighborhood], [City]”
Market snapshot: average rent by bedroom count, current vacancy rate, year-over-year rent trend.
Rental comps: three to five comparable properties with price ranges (no specific addresses needed).
Amenities section: walkability score, transit access, top employers, schools.
Micro-neighborhood photos: street-level images that establish local credibility.
Owner CTA: “Get a free rental analysis for your [Neighborhood] property.”
Tenant CTA: “See available rentals in [Neighborhood].”
Topic ideas that attract both audiences:
“Average rent in [Neighborhood] in 2026” (owner and tenant intent)
“Eviction timeline in [State]: what property owners need to know” (owner intent)
“Best neighborhoods for renters in [City]” (tenant intent, builds brand awareness)
“Rent roll optimization for small landlords in [City]” (owner intent, high conversion)
Measurement: track organic sessions per neighborhood page monthly, lead form submissions from content pages, and keyword ranking movement for neighborhood-specific terms. Most neighborhood pages take 4–6 months to rank competitively; the compounding effect means pages built today generate leads through 2027 and beyond.
Which tools should property managers use for marketing and operations?
The right tool stack depends on where you are in your growth curve. Month 1 priorities are the tools that directly generate or capture leads. Month 2 adds automation. Month 3 adds analytics and creative production.
Tool | Purpose | Cost Range | Best For |
Google Business Profile | Local search visibility and reviews | Free | Both audiences |
Mailchimp | Email automation and drip sequences | $0–$150/month | Owner nurture, tenant retention |
Buildium | Property management CRM and operations | $0–$150/month | Operations, tenant data sync |
Meta Ads Manager | Facebook and Instagram paid campaigns | Ad spend + free tool | Owner awareness, retargeting |
Matterport | 3D virtual tours and spatial data | $150–$400 + scan fees | Tenant conversion, listing quality |
Blistr | AI-generated 2D/3D plans, images, videos, listing copy, social assets | Package pricing | Listing readiness, ad creative |
Setup priority checklist:
Month 1: Claim and optimize GBP; build owner landing page; set up Mailchimp with a five-email owner drip sequence; connect call tracking to your website.
Month 2: Launch Google Search campaigns targeting owner-intent keywords; integrate Buildium with Mailchimp for automated tenant communications; begin posting on Instagram 3x per week.
Month 3: Add Matterport or Blistr for visual asset production; build first two neighborhood guide pages; set up Meta retargeting for GBP and website visitors.
Integration notes that matter: Buildium’s open API allows syncing tenant and owner records with Mailchimp, so lease events (move-in, renewal reminder, move-out) trigger automated email sequences without manual exports. Connect Google Ads and Google Analytics via UTM parameters so every owner lead is attributed to the correct campaign and keyword.
What does a 90-day property management marketing plan look like?
Sprint 1 (Days 1–30): Launch the owner acquisition funnel
Claim and fully optimize GBP (Week 1).
Build or rebuild the owner landing page with a free rental analysis CTA (Week 1–2).
Launch Google Search campaign targeting owner-intent keywords with a $1,000–$1,500/month budget (Week 2).
Set up five-email owner drip sequence in Mailchimp (Week 3).
Begin Instagram posting cadence: 3x per week (Week 1, ongoing).
Sprint 2 (Days 31–60): Build neighborhood content and visual assets
Publish two neighborhood guide pages (Weeks 5–6).
Commission professional photography and a 3D tour for one flagship managed property (Week 5).
Add Meta retargeting campaign for owner landing page visitors (Week 6).
Send first owner nurture email to existing database (Week 7).
Sprint 3 (Days 61–90): Roll out email automation and optimize
Activate tenant move-in and renewal reminder sequences in Buildium/Mailchimp (Week 9).
Launch referral program with tenant and owner incentives (Week 10).
Review 60-day ad data: pause underperforming keywords, increase budget on top performers (Week 10).
Publish two more neighborhood guides (Weeks 11–12).
Monthly SEO review: check rankings, organic sessions, and lead form submissions (Week 12).
Sample budget allocation:
Task owners: The owner landing page and GBP setup are internal tasks (operations or marketing lead). Ad management works best with a specialist or agency once the budget exceeds $2,000/month. Photography and AI-generated collateral (Blistr) are external vendor tasks. Neighborhood content can be written internally or outsourced to a real estate copywriter at $150–$300 per page.
How to measure results: KPIs, reporting cadence, and five A/B tests
Measurement without a reporting cadence produces data no one acts on. The goal is a simple system: weekly checks on paid spend, monthly reviews of SEO and email, and a quarterly strategy reset.
Core KPIs:
Organic sessions by landing page (weekly)
Owner-lead form submissions per month
Tenant-lead inquiries per month
Cost per acquired door (UAC): total marketing spend divided by new management agreements signed
Renewal rate (monthly)
Lifetime value per door (quarterly)
Reporting cadence:
Weekly: review Google Ads search terms, pause irrelevant queries, check call tracking volume.
Monthly: SEO keyword rankings, organic traffic by page, email open and click rates, GBP views and calls.
Quarterly: full funnel review, UAC by channel, renewal rate trend, referral-sourced lead count.
Five A/B tests to run in the first 90 days:
Landing page headline: “Free Rental Analysis” vs. “See What Your Property Could Earn.”
Lead form length: three fields (name, email, phone) vs. five fields (add property address and number of units). Shorter forms typically convert at higher rates.
Hero visual: professional photo vs. embedded 3D tour on the owner landing page.
CTA button color and placement: above-the-fold vs. mid-page; orange vs. blue.
Ad copy variants: feature-led (“We manage everything”) vs. benefit-led (“Keep more of your rental income”).
Run each test for a minimum of two weeks and 100 sessions before drawing conclusions.
How AI-generated marketing collateral speeds listings: Blistr in practice
The production bottleneck in property management marketing is not strategy. It is the time between a property becoming available and that property appearing in ads, listings, and social feeds with professional-quality assets. Traditional workflows, involving a photographer, a floor plan drafter, a copywriter, and a social media designer, can take one to two weeks per property.
Blistr’s AI-driven platform compresses that timeline to 18–48 hours from a single property capture, delivering a complete collateral package that includes 2D and 3D floor plans, professionally generated images and videos, listing copy, social-ready assets, and geolocation map graphics.
Blistr capabilities relevant to property managers:
2D and 3D floor plans for listing pages and print materials
AI-generated property images and video walk-throughs
Virtual agent avatars with voice cloning for video content
Property listing copywriting optimized for portals and your own site
Social media content ready for Instagram, Facebook, and YouTube
Custom music for video assets
Analytics and insights on asset performance
Pro Tip: Use Blistr’s social-ready assets as the creative in your first Meta retargeting campaign. Because the assets are produced from the same property capture, they maintain visual consistency across the listing page, the ad, and the email, which reduces creative fatigue and improves ad recall.
For property managers running a portfolio of 20 or more units, the per-property time savings compound quickly. A property that goes live in 48 hours instead of 10 days captures leasing inquiries during the highest-demand window, which is typically the first week a listing is active.
Legal and compliance considerations in property management marketing
Property management marketing operates within a defined legal framework, and violations carry real financial and reputational consequences.
The Fair Housing Act prohibits advertising that expresses a preference, limitation, or discrimination based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, or disability. This applies to listing descriptions, photos, and targeting parameters in paid ads. Meta Ads, for example, restricts housing advertisers from targeting by zip code in ways that produce discriminatory exclusion, and from using demographic targeting categories such as age or family status for housing ads. Review Meta’s Special Ad Category settings before launching any housing campaign.
CAN-SPAM and TCPA compliance govern email and SMS outreach. Every marketing email must include a physical mailing address and an unsubscribe mechanism. SMS messages require explicit opt-in consent before sending. Mailchimp and most major email platforms handle CAN-SPAM compliance automatically, but the opt-in process is the marketer’s responsibility.
State-level disclosure requirements vary. Some states require property managers to disclose their license number in all advertising. California, Texas, and Florida each have specific rules about what must appear in rental listings and management agreements. Confirm your state’s requirements with a licensed real estate attorney before publishing marketing materials at scale.
Practical compliance checklist:
Audit all listing descriptions for language that could imply a preference for or against a protected class.
Set Meta housing campaigns to the “Special Ad Category: Housing” setting, which disables discriminatory targeting options.
Add an unsubscribe link and physical address to every marketing email.
Collect explicit SMS opt-in at the point of inquiry (web form or in-person).
Display your property management license number in all advertising where required by state law.
How to integrate offline marketing into a digital-first strategy
Offline tactics work best when they feed the digital funnel rather than operate independently. A yard sign that includes a QR code linking to the property’s 3D tour converts a passive passerby into an active online lead. A community event generates social content, referrals, and GBP reviews simultaneously.
Signage: Place “For Rent” signs with a QR code linking directly to the listing page, not the homepage. Include the phone number and a short vanity URL. Track calls from signage using a dedicated call tracking number.
Print materials: A one-page owner information sheet, left with local real estate agents and mortgage brokers, generates referral leads at low cost. Include your GBP review link and a QR code to the owner landing page. Print runs of 250–500 sheets cost $50–$150 at most local print shops.
Events: Sponsor or co-host a local landlord meetup or real estate investor networking event. These events place you in front of owner prospects in a non-sales context. Bring printed materials, collect business cards, and follow up with a personalized email within 48 hours. The email follow-up is where the offline contact enters the digital drip sequence.
Direct mail: A targeted mailer to owners of non-owner-occupied properties in your service area can generate owner leads at a cost of $0.50–$1.50 per piece. Use county assessor data to identify absentee owners and send a postcard with a QR code to the free rental analysis landing page. Track response rate by using a unique phone number or URL on each mailer batch.
The single highest-leverage move most property managers skip
The most consistent pattern in underperforming PM marketing programs is not a missing tactic. It is the absence of a dedicated owner acquisition funnel. Most property managers have a website, a social presence, and some ad spend, but no specific page, no specific offer, and no specific email sequence built exclusively for the owner prospect.
The owner funnel does not need to be complex. A single landing page with a free rental analysis offer, a five-email drip sequence, and a Google Search campaign targeting owner-intent keywords will outperform a broad, unfocused marketing program every time. The recommended channel hierarchy places Google Ads first for immediate owner leads, local partnerships and referrals second, and brand awareness channels last. That sequence exists because it reflects where owner intent is highest and where conversion is most measurable.
Build the owner funnel before expanding to any other channel. Everything else in this guide amplifies a foundation that only works if the conversion infrastructure is in place first.
Blistr helps property managers get listings live faster
Property managers who manage 20 or more units know the cost of a slow listing launch. Every day a unit sits unlisted or goes live with substandard photos is a day of lost rent. Blistr eliminates that gap by delivering a complete marketing collateral package, including 2D and 3D floor plans, AI-generated images, video walk-throughs, listing copy, and social-ready assets, within 18–48 hours of a single property capture.
The practical advantage for property managers is speed without the coordination overhead. No separate photographer, floor plan drafter, copywriter, and designer. One booking, one capture session, one connected package delivered in under two days. That speed means listings go live during the highest-demand window, ads launch with consistent creative from day one, and owner clients see professional-quality marketing on their asset immediately.
What a Blistr package includes:
2D and 3D floor plans for listing pages and print materials
Professionally generated property images and video content
Virtual agent avatars and voice cloning for video
Property listing copywriting for portals and your own site
Social media assets ready for Instagram, Facebook, and YouTube
Geolocation and map graphics
Analytics and performance insights
View Blistr’s packages and pricing to find the right fit for your portfolio size, or book a session directly to get your next listing live within 48 hours.
Sources
The following sources informed this guide and are worth bookmarking for ongoing reference:
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